The birth of Jesus has been interpreted in various ways throughout history. Each interpretation offers its own set of strengths and challenges.
Virgin Birth Without a Father
Tribal affiliation and lineage, especially for roles like kingship or priesthood, are passed exclusively through the paternal line [1]. A child born without a human father would lack a tribal affiliation and lineage, disqualifying him from certain hereditary roles, including a claim to the throne of David. This is critical because the messianic lineage is prophesied to come from the House of David [2], a paternal inheritance.
Another important prophetic detail is that Messiah is called the “seed of Abraham” and “seed of David”, if there is a conception without seed then the prophecy falls short.
This view of a fatherless messiah is typically argued to have been prophesied in two places:
Genesis 3:15, "And I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her seed; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel."
This verse is part of the pronouncement Hashem makes to the serpent in the Garden of Eden, often seen as a prophecy of future redemption. The phrase "her seed" is particularly notable because it implies a descendant of the woman, without reference to a male progenitor. This has been interpreted by some to suggest a special, perhaps miraculous, lineage for the Messiah without the need of a human father. However, the word utilized is (זֶרַע) which can mean a literal seed, semen, offspring, or an idiom for someone who practices righteousness. It does not imply an 'egg' of the woman, which is (in scripture) referred to as 'land' - typically either barren land or fertile land (Isaiah 62:4, Ezekiel 19:10-14, Hosea 2:3). In Genesis, the context of seed can only be in reference to her descendants who will struggle with the serpent. Additionally, a man's seed is considered the woman's property when they are married. As proof for this, the "seed of the woman" is referenced once more when Eve conceives and gives birth to Seth:
Genesis 4:25"She knew Adam again, and his wife bore a son named Seth for G-d has given her another seed instead of Abel whom Cain killed."
This is not speaking of a virgin birth, but rather a seed from Adam which belongs to her. Thus, it is rightfully both the 'seed of Eve' and the 'offspring of Eve'. It is important to note that her first ‘seed’ was Abel (seed born to Eve after the fall) as the verse indicates, “another seed instead of Abel”.
To substantiate the virgin birth claim further within the birth narrative, the following verses are commonly used:
Matthew 1:18a, “… before [Joseph & Mary] came together, she [Mary] was found to be pregnant…”.
The term συνέρχομαι (came together) means to cohabitate together and is usually associated with marital relations – but not external relations. Since Joseph and Mary are not formally married, this statement is merely saying that Jesus was conceived after betrothal and before the formal marriage consummation.
Matthew 1:18b, “…she [Mary] was found pregnant by the Holy Spirit”.
This does not imply the Holy Spirit impregnated Mary sexually or asexually. A spirit does not have flesh and bones [3] nor does it have sexual organs. It was also known that the Holy Spirit is involved in every pregnancy [4]. Highlighting the role of the Spirit in this passage is only for the sake of indicating a more prominent role of the Spirit – similar to the matriarchs before her. A good example of this is Isaac who was born of the Spirit to his mother Sarah with the seed of Abraham [5].
Mathew 1:24-25 “[Joseph] did not consummate their marriage until she gave birth to a son.”
This only indicates that the marriage was not consummated. Marriages did not have to be consummated on the day of the formal marriage. However, this (with its preceding verses) does mean that Joseph and Mary abstained from sex between the conception and the birth of Jesus. This also would not negate the righteousness of Joseph, as it is Biblically lawful (circumstances considered). This will be expounded below along with the following two verses:
Luke 1:26-27“…a parthenos pledged to be married to a man named Joseph…”
Luke 1:34-35, “…how will [birth] be, since I have not known a man?”
Virgin or Halachic Virgin
While commonly understood and translated as “virgin”, the passages in Luke and Matthew do not necessarily mean that Mary was a virgin by modern definition.
The word “virgin” typically describes someone who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. However, this is not completely accurate from a Jewish law perspective (Halacha). A halachic virgin is one who still has their hymen intact (hymen-blood virgin). A “virgin” (בתולה) could be pregnant while remaining a virgin by halachic standards [6]. In the sense of a hymen-blood virgin, she could conceive while having her hymen intact, thus preserving her status as a virgin.
One who begins the process of consummation for the sake of betrothal (discussed in the next section) but did not have a male member fully inserted or cause the hymen to break would still carry the halachic status of a virgin.
Another instance of “virgin” being used in the halachic sense is in regards to the “menstrual blood virgin” rather than the “hymen-blood virgin.” The Mishnah [7] states a virgin is one who did not see the flow of menstrual blood in all her days – even if she was married and had blood flow from the tearing of the hymen or showed blood from giving birth – she is still considered a virgin.
While extremely rare, there is no issue with one who carries the title of halachic virgin while simultaneously being pregnant. This is especially important considering that the initial stages of intimacy can count towards betrothal which can preserve the halachic status of virginity while also resulting in a pregnancy under divine will [8].
Virgin or Young Maiden
Matthew 1:22-23 quotes Isaiah 7:14 which states: “Therefore the Lord Himself shall give you a sign: Behold, the young woman (עלמה, almah) shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel." The term "almah" means "young woman" and does not explicitly denote virginity [9] although it is often implied. The Hebrew word for virgin is bethulah (בתולה), which is a halachic state of virginity. Since the text in Isaiah specifically uses “almah” and not “bethulah” it can be understood that this woman is only being referred to as young and of marriageable age. Rashi also interprets "almah" as a young woman who is not necessarily a virgin [10]. The reason for this is that the sign given in the context of Isaiah was for King Ahaz [11], concerning the immediate future child (King Hezekiah) and not a distant messianic prophecy. This is fulfilled two chapters later when it says, "A child has been born" (speaking of Hezekiah). While the prophecy can be understood to have a dual meaning of both a future king and a more immediate king, it would have to be assumed that Hezekiah’s mother was also a virgin, which she was not [12].
Matthew was noted to have been originally written in Hebrew [13] according to many early writers ranging from 75-400 CE. If this is true, then it is very likely that Isaiah was quoted properly with the Hebrew term ‘almah’ along with the other instances of “virgin”.
The Greek version of Isaiah translates almah (young maiden) as parthenos (παρθένος), which is usually translated as "virgin" in English. Likewise, the Greek version of Matthew and Luke both use the term parthenos to describe Mary’s status. While it is common for parthenos to imply virginity, it is not always the case, and is usually in reference to a young woman with a high level of purity (similar to the Hebraic word almah).
In addition to multiple external texts speak of a non-virgin parthenos [14], we also have a scriptural basis when Dinah was violated in Shechem and called parthenos [15] in the Greek. Parthenos, in this instance, is translated from the Hebrew na’arah. A na'arah is a young girl around 12 years of age who has developed two pubic hairs but has not yet shown signs of full physical maturity, such as menstruation [16]. The status of a Na’arah is viewed as a virgin [17].
If Matthew’s Greek translators and Luke are using the closest Greek equivalent of the Hebraic almah who is a na’arah, then parthenos is an acceptable equivalent.
Betrothal through Consummation
Within the framework of Jewish law, it is possible that Joseph is the legitimate biological father of Jesus while retaining Mary’s status as a parthenos. Erusin (the act of betrothal) could be affected through money, a document, or consummation [18].
Rashba states that the initial stages of intimacy, such as foreplay, can fulfill the act of “betrothal” if the intent is to complete the act [19]. R' Tam explains that intimacy occurs in two parts, but together they form one act that satisfies engagement requirements. R. Nissim adds that if there is an intention for intimacy to fulfill both engagement (erusin) and marriage (chuppah), it is valid for both. The Rambam's view, also found in Tosafos, harmonizes these opinions, suggesting that today's practice of the Yichud room (seclusion room) after Erusin and before Chuppah (formal marriage) covers all these aspects. In this way, one could become betrothed through partial insertion of the male member and not break the hymen – with the assumption that after marriage the act would be completed and the member would later be fully inserted to finish the act of consummation. This full insertion is the point at which the woman has “known the man”.
The Virgin Mary: First Time Impossibilities
Joseph and Mary may have held a view that pregnancy from the first interaction was impossible [20]. The belief was that a woman could not conceive from her first intercourse. The first act transforms her into a vessel, with the potential for conception arising in subsequent encounters unless the Spirit of Hashem opens her womb (similar to Sarah [21]).
If Joseph performed erusin through consummation with Mary, then they would be under the assumption that pregnancy would not result from their initial union. When Mary discovered she was pregnant, she questioned how it was possible since she had only performed erusin and was not yet fully married (she had only been transformed into a vessel and had not yet ‘filled’ it). Additionally, Mary may have also been a na’arah (having not yet had her first menstrual cycle), adding to the suspicion of pregnancy from partial consummation for betrothal.
Mary states, “I have not known a man”, which is idiomatic for marital relations of full penetration. Foreplay and the beginning stages of consummation for erusin would not be considered “knowing a man”. While scientifically possible, it is considered improbable, especially if the act was not to completion and she was still a na’arah.
Joseph’s Surprise
Joseph, upon learning of Mary's pregnancy, believed it could not be his doing, suspecting either infidelity or deception of her virgin status. Once the angel appeared and informed them that the conception was through the spirit (similar to Isaac from Sarah), both parties understood that it was by the will of Hashem that she was pregnant.
While erusin through consummation was an accepted method [22], it was generally discouraged due to the need for witnesses. Therefore, it might be unlikely (but not impossible) that Joseph and Mary chose the beginnings of consummation [23] for erusin. It is also probable that different regions had varying practices regarding this. However, given that Joseph and Mary were pious and likely adhered to mainstream Pharisaic halacha of Hillel (at that time), they might not have engaged in a method generally seen as inappropriate. Both Hillel and Shammai emphasize the importance of witnesses and proper procedure in betrothal - showing this was not a very diverse practice [24]. Joseph was from Nazareth which was a place of poverty for many and they may not have had the means to perform erusin through money or document, leaving it only to consummation [25].
Joseph like Abraham, Jesus like Isaac
In Kedushat Levi, Rabbi Levi Yitzchak of Berditchev discusses the miraculous conception of Isaac, emphasizing Hashem's direct intervention. According to Rabbi Levi Yitzchak, Hashem opened the womb of Sarah [26], and then took the seed of Abraham and implanted it into Sarah, overcoming her old age and barrenness to fulfill His promise of a son. This son was the son of a covenantal promise. This explanation underscores the divine orchestration in Isaac's birth, highlighting Hashem's power and faithfulness [27].
Drawing a parallel to Jesus, we can consider the notion that Hashem opened Mary’s womb and then took the seed of Joseph and implanted it into Mary, thus preserving her halachic virginity while enabling the conception of Jesus.
In both narratives, the conception occurs through divine intervention. For Isaac, Hashem's direct action enables Sarah to conceive despite natural obstacles. Similarly, Jesus’ conception is attributed to the Holy Spirit, bypassing normal conception but involving Joseph's seed in this parallel. The birth of Isaac fulfills Hashem's promise to Abraham and Sarah, while Jesus’ birth fulfills the prophetic promises of a messianic savior [28]. Both births are portrayed as miracles that defy natural laws and result in the birth of the “promised seed” of Abraham [29].
[1] Bava Batra 109b, Numbers 1:18, Mishnah Kiddushin 3:12, Yevamot 45b
[2] Jeremiah 23:5, Isaiah 11:1-10
[3] Luke 24:39
[4] Psalm 104:30, Job 33:4, Genesis 4:1, Genesis 21:1-2, Niddah 31a, Genesis Rabbah 1(2d)
[5] Genesis 21:1-3, Midrash Rabbah Genesis 53:6, Bava Metzia 87a, Galatians 4:28-29 (referencing Isaac and Ishmael)
[6] Yevamot 60a, Ketubot 39a, Ketubot 10a
[7] Niddah 8b:9
[8] Tosafot on Yevamot 55b
[9] Sweeney 1996 p161
[10] Rashi on Isaiah 7:14
[11] Isaiah 7:10-13
[12] 2 Kings 16:2-3, 18:2
[13] Ecclesiastical History Book 3 Chapter 39 (60-130 CE), Irenaeus Against Heresies Book 3 Chapter 1 (130-202 CE), Eusebius Ecclesiastical History Book 4 Chapter 25 & Book 3 Chapter 24 (260-340 CE), Epiphanius Panarion Chapter 29 (310-403 CE).
[14] Homer’s Iliad Book 2 line 514, Pindar’s Pythian Odes – Ode 3 line 34, Sophocles’ Trachiniae (The Women of Trachis) line 1219, Aristophanes’ Cloud (Nubes) line 530.
[15] Genesis 34:3 (καὶ προσέσχεν τῇ ψυχῇ Δινας τῆς θυγατρὸς Ιακωβ καὶ ἠγάπησεν τὴν παρθένον καὶ ἐλάλησεν κατὰ τὴν διάνοιαν τῆς παρθένου αὐτῇ)
[16] Niddah 44b, Niddah 5:6
[17] Yevamot 60a, Ketubot 39a
[18] Tosafos on Yevamos 55b
[19] Rashba Kiddushin 50a
[20] Shita Mekubetzet on Ketubot 3b:27
[21] Rashi on Genesis 21:1
[22] Yevamot 55b:4
[23] Tosafos on Yevamot 55b:9-17, 56a:1
[24] Mishnah Yevamot 13:1
[25] Jerusalem Talmud Ketubbot 1.25C.20
[26] Genesis 29:31
[27] Kedushah Levi – Genesis Chayei Sarah 8
[28] Isaiah 7:14, Matthew 1:22-23
[29] Genesis 15:4-5, 17:15-19, 21:1-3 (Isaac) & Galatian 3:16, Acts 3:25-26, Romans 4:13
Nice